<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.0 20120330//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.0" xml:lang="ko" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">KJM</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>The Korean Journal of Medicine</journal-title><abbrev-journal-title>Korean J Med</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1738-9364</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2289-0769</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>The Korean Journal of Medicine</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3904/kjm.2024.99.4.169</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">kjm-99-4-169</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group>
<subject>What's hot?</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>비결핵항산균 폐질환의 면역 발병 기전</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en">Immunopathogenesis of Non-Tuberculous Mycobacteria Lung Disease</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name-alternatives>
<name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Lyu</surname><given-names>Jiwon</given-names></name>
<name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ko"><surname>류</surname><given-names>지원</given-names></name>
</name-alternatives>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-kjm-99-4-169"/>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-kjm-99-4-169"/>
</contrib>
<aff-alternatives id="af1-kjm-99-4-169">
<aff xml:lang="en">Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Cheonan, <country>Korea</country></aff>
<aff xml:lang="ko">순천향대학교 의과대학 순천향대학교 천안병원 호흡기내과</aff>
</aff-alternatives>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1-kjm-99-4-169" xml:lang="en">Correspondence to Jiwon Lyu, M.D. Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, 31 Suncheonhyang 6-gil, Dongnam-gu, Cheonan 31151, Korea Tel: +82-41-570-2812, Fax: +82-41-570-2848, E-mail: <email>ljagnes7@gmail.com</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="ppub">
<day>1</day>
<month>8</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>1</day>
<month>8</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<volume>99</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<fpage>169</fpage>
<lpage>179</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>11</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>29</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>30</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2024</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright &#x000A9; 2024 The Korean Association of Internal Medicine</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2024</copyright-year>
<license xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/</ext-link>) which permits unrestricted noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p></license></permissions>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en"><p>In recent years, the incidence and prevalence of non-tuberculous mycobacteria lung disease (NTM-LD) has been increasing worldwide. In Korea, <italic>Mycobacterium avium</italic> complex (MAC) and <italic>Mycobacterium abscessus</italic> complex account for most common cause of NTM-LD. It is essential to elucidate the pathophysiology of NTM-LD. The pathophysiology of NTM-LD has not been fully understood, however, it can be divided into bacterial and host-side factor. Among the host factor, innate immunity plays an essential role in the initial host immune response against intracellular non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), and adaptive immunity also has a role. However, the role of these immunity in mycobacterial disease has been mainly studied in tuberculosis, but studies on its role in NTM are limited. In this review, I focus on NTM innate and adaptive immunity, the role of macrophages and neutrophils, and host interaction in NTM infection.</p></trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="ko">
<kwd>비결핵항산균</kwd>
<kwd>폐질환</kwd>
<kwd>면역 발병 기전</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<kwd>Nontuberculous mycobacteria</kwd>
<kwd>Lung diseases</kwd>
<kwd>Immunopathogenesis</kwd>
</kwd-group></article-meta></front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>서 론</title>
<p>최근 전 세계적으로 비결핵항산균(non-tuberuclous mycobacteria, NTM) 폐질환의 발병률과 유병률이 증가하고 있으며 우리나라도 예외는 아니다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b1-kjm-99-4-169">1</xref>&#x005D;. 국내에서는 <italic>Mycobacterium avium</italic> complex (MAC)와 <italic>Mycobacterium abscessus</italic> complex가 가장 흔한 원인균으로 알려져 있다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b2-kjm-99-4-169">2</xref>&#x005D;. NTM 폐질환의 진단 및 치료를 위해서는 NTM 폐질환의 병태생리를 밝히는 것이 매우 중요하다. NTM 폐질환의 병태생리는 아직 완전히 밝혀지지 않았지만 NTM 자체 요인과 숙주 요인으로 나눌 수 있다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b3-kjm-99-4-169">3</xref>&#x005D;. NTM 자체 요인은 biofilm의 형성 및 species에 따라 다르게 나타나는 NTM의 발병력이 중요하다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b3-kjm-99-4-169">3</xref>&#x005D;. 숙주 요인 중 선천면역은 세포 내 NTM에 대한 초기 숙주 면역 반응에 필수적인 역할을 하며 적응면역 역시 일부 역할을 수행한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b4-kjm-99-4-169">4</xref>&#x005D;. 그러나 항산균질환에서 이러한 면역의 역할은 주로 결핵균(<italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</italic>, MTB)에서 많이 연구되었고 NTM에서의 면역의 역할에 대한 연구는 매우 제한적이다. 본고에서는 NTM 폐질환에서의 NTM 자체의 특성, 선천면역(대식세포와 호중구의 역할) 및 적응면역, NTM과 숙주 간 상호작용에 대하여 면역학적 관점에 초점을 맞추어 살펴보고자 한다.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>본 론</title>
<sec>
<title>병인의 NTM 자체 인자 (mycobacterial factors in pathogenesis)</title>
<sec>
<title>Biofilm 형성</title>
<p>NTM은 주로 물, 흙, 먼지 등 자연 환경에 널리 분포하고 있으며 NTM에 의한 인체 감염은 대부분 이러한 환경과의 접촉에 의하여 발생한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b5-kjm-99-4-169">5</xref>&#x005D;. 따라서 NTM의 환경적 특성과 다양한 표면에서 biofilm을 형성하는 능력은 NTM 질환의 발병 기전에 중요한 역할을 한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b6-kjm-99-4-169">6</xref>&#x005D;. NTM의 biofilm은 environmental reservoir로써 역할을 하게 된다. Biofilm은 물-고체 표면 계면과 기도점막에서 발견되는 3차원 구조로 살아있거나 죽은 미생물에서 분비되거나 파생되는 탄수화물, 단백질, 지질, 핵산(DNA)으로 구성된 매트릭스다. Biofilm의 생성에 관여하는 특정 항산균 분자로는 trehalose dimycolate (cord factor), glycopeptidolipids (GPLs), type III polyketide synthases, ESX-1 secretion system, GroEL1 chaperone, FabG4, peptidylprolylisomerase, fatty acid synthase (FAS)-II components, protein kinase PknF 등이 있다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b6-kjm-99-4-169">6</xref>&#x005D;. Biofilm의 형성은 NTM의 생존 전략으로 biofilm 내부의 NTM은 일반 소독제에 대한 내성이 높고 기도점막 내에 형성되면 항생제에 더 강한 내성을 보인다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b7-kjm-99-4-169">7</xref>&#x005D;. 이러한 내성은 물리적 장벽으로써 biofilm의 역할뿐만 아니라 투과성, 대사 상태, 내성 유전자의 활성화, 지속세포(persistent cells) 등 다양한 기전을 통해 biofilm 내 발병력(virulence)이 강화될 수 있기 때문으로 생각된다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b7-kjm-99-4-169">7</xref>&#x005D;. 한 연구에서는 3종류(<italic>Mycobacterium smegmatis, Mycobacterium fortuitum, Mycobacterium chelonae</italic>)의 신속 성장균(rapid-growing NTM)이 표면에 biofilm을 형성할 수 있었는데 이는 sliding이라고 알려진 고체 배지에서의 확산 능력과 관련이 있었다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b8-kjm-99-4-169">8</xref>&#x005D;.</p>
<p>병원성 및 비병원성 항산균 모두 biofilm을 형성할 수 있는데 이 능력은 본질적으로 독성 메커니즘이라기보다는 생존에 필수적인 형태로 간주되어 왔다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b6-kjm-99-4-169">6</xref>&#x005D;. Biofilm의 발달은 항산균이 목적하는 표면에 부착하는 것으로 시작한다. Zamora 등&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b9-kjm-99-4-169">9</xref>&#x005D;은 항산균이 무기체의 표면(polypropylene 봉합사)에 부착하는 힘이 질병을 유발하는 능력과 상관관계가 있다고 보고하였다. NTM 세포벽 구성 요소 중 GPLs는 biofilm 형성에 관여하는데 이는 <italic>M. abscessus</italic>와 같은 신속 성장균뿐만 아니라 MAC와 같은 지연 성장균 모두에서 서술되어 왔다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b10-kjm-99-4-169">10</xref>&#x005D;. 서로 다른 NTM 종의 GPLs는 동일한 lipopeptide core를 가지지만 글리코실화(glycosylation), 메틸화(methylation), 아세틸화(acetylation)의 정도가 달라 서로 다른 특성을 지닌다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b11-kjm-99-4-169">11</xref>&#x005D;. 일부 신속 성장균에서 GPLs는 sliding motility, smooth colony phenotype과 관련되어 있으며 biofilm 형성 능력을 높인다. 또한 GPLs가 대식세포에 존재하는 Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2)와 같은 숙주의 패턴인식수용체(pattern recognition receptor, PRRs)가 phosphatidylinositol mannosides (PIMs)와 같은 항산균 세포벽 구성 요소를 인식하지 못하도록 할 수 있기 때문에 염증 반응을 감소시킬 수 있다. 따라서 <italic>M. abscessus</italic> 폐질환에서 smooth colony phenotype은 rough colony phenotype보다 더 낮은 병원성을 가진다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b12-kjm-99-4-169">12</xref>&#x005D;. 하지만 GPLs와 연관된 이러한 관계는 모든 균주에서 동일하지는 않다. 이에 대하여는 NTM의 GPLs 파트에서 좀 더 자세히 다룰 예정이다.</p>
<p>인체 내에는 여러 미생물의 biofilm이 공존하기 때문에 NTM은 다른 미생물의 증식과 생존에 있어 서로 영향을 미칠 수 있다. 최근 여러 연구에서 낭포성 섬유증(cystic fibrosis, CF)에서 주요 병원균인 NTM과 <italic>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</italic>와의 관계가 연구되었다. 몇 가지 연구는 <italic>M. abscessus</italic>와 <italic>P. aeruginosa</italic>가 실험관 내(<italic>in vitro</italic>) biofilm 모델에서 공존할 수 있으며 상호 경쟁관계에 있다고 보고하였다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b13-kjm-99-4-169">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b14-kjm-99-4-169">14</xref>&#x005D;. 이러한 연구에서 <italic>P. aeruginosa</italic>는 <italic>M. abscessus</italic>의 성장을 제한할 수 있으며&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b13-kjm-99-4-169">13</xref>&#x005D; <italic>P. aeruginosa</italic>에 대한 항생제 치료가 이러한 복잡하고 경쟁적인 상호작용을 감소시켜 <italic>M. abscessus</italic>의 생존을 증가시킨다고 보고하였다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b14-kjm-99-4-169">14</xref>&#x005D;. 이와 같은 연구들은 NTM 및 <italic>P. aeruginosa</italic> 동시 감염 환자의 치료에 있어 중요한 영향을 줄 것으로 기대된다.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>NTM의 발병력(virulence)</title>
<p>NTM은 200여 종 이상의 균종(species)으로 분류되고 있지만 모든 NTM species가 질병을 일으키는 것은 아니고 상대적으로 적은 수의 NTM species가 대부분의 NTM 질환을 일으킨다. 이러한 특성은 NTM 고유의 독성인자(virulence factor)  병원성 잠재력(pathogenic potential)의 차이가 NTM 질환을 발생시키고 진행시키는 데 영향을 끼치기 때문이다. NTM의 병독성은 선천면역 반응을 유발하는 NTM 세포벽의 병원체 관련 분자적 패턴(pathogen-associated molecular patterns, PAMPs)과 관련이 깊다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b15-kjm-99-4-169">15</xref>&#x005D;. NTM은 환경에서의 생존을 돕고 숙주 면역과 항생제에 대한 보호를 제공하는 지질 함유 세포외피(lipid-containing cell envelope)를 가지고 있다. 세포외피의 20%가 지질인 그람음성균에 비해 항산균에서는 세포외피의 최대 60%가 지질이다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b16-kjm-99-4-169">16</xref>&#x005D;. NTM의 세포막은 얇은 펩티도글리칸(peptidoglycan, PPG) 층으로 둘러싸여 있다. 이 PPG 층 위에는 세포벽의 형태와 기능을 유지시키는 아라비노갈락탄(arabinogalactan, AG) 층이 존재하며 마이콜산(mycolic acid, MA)이라고 불리는 long-chain beta-hydroxy fatty acid와 연결되어 있다. 항산균에서 가장 중요한 PAMPs는 lipomannan (LM), lipoarabinomannan (LAM), manosylated LAM (ManLAM), trehalose dimycolate (TDM), hydrophilic PIMs이다. NTM 특이적으로 MTB에는 없는 GPLs는 항원성이 높은 혈청형 특이적 GPLs (serovar-specific GPLs, ssGPLs)와 비특이적 GPLs (non-specific GPLs, nsGPLs)로 분류되며 NTM의 생물학과 병태생리에서 중요한 역할을 한다(<xref rid="f1-kjm-99-4-169" ref-type="fig">Fig. 1</xref>) &#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b17-kjm-99-4-169">17</xref>&#x005D;.</p>
<sec>
<title>NTM의 lipoglycans</title>
<p>LAM은 항산균에 보편적으로 존재하는 지질로 virulence factor로 잘 알려져 있다. 특정 LAM은 숙주 면역 반응을 효과적으로 유발할 수 있다. LAM은 하나의 carbohydrate backbone 과 두 개의 core (mannan, arabinan)로 구성된다. LAM은 arabinan을 덮은 다양한 cap의 형태에 따라 세 가지 유형으로 분류되는데 첫째, cap이 없는 AraLAM (<italic>M. chelonae</italic>에 해당), 둘째, phospho-myo-inositol cap을 가진 PILAM (<italic>M. fortuitum</italic>, <italic>M. smegmatis</italic>에 해당), 셋째, mannosylated cap을 가진 ManLAM (MTB, <italic>Mycobacterium leprae</italic>, <italic>M. avium</italic> 등에 해당)으로 분류된다(<xref rid="f2-kjm-99-4-169" ref-type="fig">Fig. 2</xref>) &#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b17-kjm-99-4-169">17</xref>&#x005D;. NTM 유래 ManLAM, PILAM, AraLAM과 숙주 면역 반응 사이의 상호작용은 부분적으로 연구되어 있다. Maeda 등&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b18-kjm-99-4-169">18</xref>&#x005D;은 MTB의 ManLAM이 숙주의 PRRs인 dendritic cells-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN)을 통해 결합하고 인식되는 반면 단일 만노스 잔기(single mannose residue)를 가진 <italic>M. avium</italic>의 ManLAM, <italic>M. fortuitum</italic>의 PILAM, 캡이 없는 <italic>M. chelonae</italic>의 AraLAM은 DC-SIGN과 잘 결합하지 않아 인식이 힘들다고 보고하였다. 하지만 신속 성장균에서 정제된 PILAM은 분화된 THP-1 대식세포로부터 전염증성 사이토카인(pro-inflammatory cytokines) 인 interleukin (IL)-12, IL-8과 tumor necrosis factor-&#x003b1; (TNF-&#x003b1;) 분비를 유도한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b19-kjm-99-4-169">19</xref>&#x005D;. 또한 유전자 변형 마우스의 폐에 투여된 <italic>M. smegmatis</italic>에서 정제된 AraLAM은 M. smegnatis에 대항하여 급성 염증 반응 및 호중구 유입을 유발시켰다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b20-kjm-99-4-169">20</xref>&#x005D;.</p>
<p>NTM 세포외피의 다른 지질 및 지단백질 역시 질병의 발생과 진행에 어떤 역할을 할 것으로 생각된다. 하지만 서로 다른 NTM species로부터 정제된 각각의 구성 요소에 따른 NTM 지질의 기능적 역할은 아직 정확하게 알려져 있지 않아 더 많은 연구가 필요하다.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>NTM의 GPLs</title>
<p>GPLs는 MTB, <italic>M. leprae</italic>에는 존재하지 않고 NTM에만 존재하는 지질이다. GPLs는 nsGPL과 ssGPL로 나뉘는데 둘 다 세포 외피에 비공유적으로(non-covalently) 결합되어 있다. nsGPL은 무극성(apolar)이며 대표적으로 <italic>M. abscessus</italic>에서 생성된다. ssGPL은 30개 이상의 다른 유형이 확인된 극성(polar) GPL로 주로 MAC에서 생성된다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b17-kjm-99-4-169">17</xref>&#x005D;. ssGPL은 nsGPL의 tetrapeptide core에 부착된 다양한 올리고당(oligosaccharides)으로 구성되며 부착된 올리고당의 종류에 따라 달라진다. GPLs는 NTM의 sliding phenotype (smooth or rough)과 biofilm 형성에 필수적이다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b21-kjm-99-4-169">21</xref>&#x005D;. GPLs에 의해 발생하는 이러한 특성은 NTM이 호흡기 점막에 더 잘 집락화(colonization)할 수 있게 만들어 준다.</p>
<sec>
<title>1) <italic>M. abscessus</italic>의 GPLs</title>
<p>GPLs의 구성과 농도는 집락 형태(colony phenotype)에 영향을 미친다. <italic>M. abscessus</italic>에서 nsGPL이 있는 경우 smooth phenotype을 보이며 nsGPL이 없는 경우 rough phenotype으로 나타난다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b22-kjm-99-4-169">22</xref>&#x005D;. Smooth phenotype의 <italic>M. abscessus</italic>는 환경에서 생존하고 비침습적이며 보통 감수성(susceptible) 숙주에서 감염이 시작된다. 선천면역세포에 존재하는 TLR2에 의한 인식을 억제하기 위하여 smooth phenotype <italic>M. abscessus</italic>의 GPL은 항산균에 존재하는 TLR2 ligand인 PIMs를 덮는 외부층을 형성하여 PIMs가 TLR2에 의해 인식되는 것을 효과적으로 차단한다(<xref rid="f3-kjm-99-4-169" ref-type="fig">Fig. 3</xref>) &#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b12-kjm-99-4-169">12</xref>&#x005D;. 그 결과 염증을 예방하고 숙주 면역 반응을 지연시킨다. Smooth phenotype과 rough phenotype의 <italic>M. abscessus</italic>를 human monocyte와 마우스 폐에 감염시켰을 때 smooth phenotype보다 rough phenotype <italic>M. abscessus</italic>가 훨씬 더 많이 증식하였다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b22-kjm-99-4-169">22</xref>&#x005D;. 임상 및 역학 데이터에서도 역시 rough phenotype <italic>M. abscessus</italic>가 더 심한 NTM 폐질환의 위험 인자로 밝혀졌다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b23-kjm-99-4-169">23</xref>&#x005D;.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>2) MAC의 GPLs</title>
<p><italic>M. avium</italic>의 경우 세 가지 colony phenotype을 가지는데 smooth opaque (SmO), smooth transparent (SmT), rough (Rg)로 나뉜다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b24-kjm-99-4-169">24</xref>&#x005D;. 이 phenotype과 발병력의 상관관계에 대해서는 의견이 분분하다. Pedrosa 등&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b25-kjm-99-4-169">25</xref>&#x005D;은 SmT colony phenotype이 가장 독성이 강한 표현형이라고 보고한 반면 Schaefer 등&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b26-kjm-99-4-169">26</xref>&#x005D;은 Rg, SmT, SmO 순서로 독성이 강하다고 보고하였다. 최근 Nishimura 등&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b27-kjm-99-4-169">27</xref>&#x005D;도 <italic>M. avium</italic> subspecies <italic>hominissuis</italic> 104를 감염시켰을 때 Rg colony phenotype이 SmO, SmT에 비해서 더 심한 폐렴을 보인다고 보고하였다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b27-kjm-99-4-169">27</xref>&#x005D;. 하지만 이에 대한 GPLs와의 관련성은 아직 뚜렷하지 않다. MAC에서 ssGPL은 세포 내 생존에 필요하며 cytokine 반응에 영향을 미친다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b28-kjm-99-4-169">28</xref>&#x005D;. <italic>M. avium</italic>의 ssGPL의 면역 조절 활동(immunomodulatory activities)은 추출된 혈청형(serovar)에 따라 다양하게 나타난다. 예를 들면 serovar-4 GPL은 식균작용(phagocytosis)을 촉진하고 포식소체-용해소체 융합(phagosome-lysosome fusion, P-L fusion)을 억제하는 반면 serovar-16 GPL은 식균작용 및 P-L fusion에 영향을 미치지 않았으며 serovar-8 GPL은 두 가지 모두 촉진하는 결과를 보였다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b29-kjm-99-4-169">29</xref>&#x005D;. 또 다른 연구에서 wild type (wt) serovar-2, serovar-8 및 serovar-null strain을 murine macrophage에 감염시켰을 때 serovar-2 감염은 TNF-&#x003b1; 생산을 활성화하며 생존율을 증가시키고 serovar-2 null strain인 경우 세포 내에서 살아남지 못하였다. Serovar-8 감염의 경우 강한 전염증성 반응을 유발함에도 wt serovar 및 serovar-null strain 모두 대식 세포에서 생존하였는데 이는 아마도 serovar-2에서는 생산되지 않는 anti-inflammatory cytokine인 IL-10의 생산 때문으로 생각되었다. 하지만 생존한 <italic>M. avium</italic>의 colony forming unit (CFU)은 wt serovar-8 감염에서 serovar-null strain보다 의미있게 높았다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b30-kjm-99-4-169">30</xref>&#x005D;. 결과적으로 <italic>M. avium</italic> ssGPL이 발병 기전의 핵심이라는 사실 및 특정 <italic>M. avium</italic> serovar의 발병 기전이 다른 serovar에 적용될 수 없다고 결론지을 수 있었다.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>병인의 숙주 인자(host factors in pathogenesis)</title>
<sec>
<title>선천면역(innate immunity)</title>
<sec>
<title>기도상피세포</title>
<p>신체와 외부 환경의 주요한 경계면인 기도상피세포는 NTM 감염에 대한 물리적, 화학적 장벽을 제공한다. 이러한 장벽을 뚫기 위해 <italic>M. avium</italic>의 표면에 존재하는 fibronectinattachment protein은 기도점막 표면의 fibronectin에 결합하여 숙주 세포의 인테그린(integrin) 수용체에 보다 특이적인 결합을 촉진하는 역할을 한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b31-kjm-99-4-169">31</xref>&#x005D;. 또한 기도상피세포에 진입한 NTM은 대식세포 침입을 더 용이하게 만드는 표현형 변화를 겪는다. 한 연구에서는 <italic>M. avium</italic>이 type II alveolar epithelial cell에 침입하여 그 안에서 복제할 수 있으며&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b32-kjm-99-4-169">32</xref>&#x005D; 감염된 세포는 케모카인(chemokine)을 분비하지 않아 <italic>M. avium</italic>이 alveolar epithelial cell을 복제핵(niche)으로 사용할 수 있다고 보고하였다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b33-kjm-99-4-169">33</xref>&#x005D;.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>대식세포</title>
<sec>
<title>1) 대식세포에 의한 NTM 인식(recognition)</title>
<p>대식세포는 NTM을 인식하고 면역 반응을 개시하는 최초의 숙주세포이다. 일반적으로 대식세포의 NTM 인지는 대식 세포 표면의 PRRs가 NTM 표면의 하나 이상의 특정 병원체 관련 PAMPs를 인식함으로써 시작된다. PRRs는 위치에 따라 세포 표면에 존재하여 세포 외 미생물 검출, 소낭에서 섭취된 미생물 성분 검출, 세포질에서 세포질 미생물과 세포 손상 생성물의 센서(sensor) 기능을 수행하는 PRRs로 나뉜다. 세포 표면 PRRs의 예로는 TLR1-9, C형 렉틴 수용체(dectin-1, dectin-2, mincle, macrophage C-type lectin &#x005B;MCL&#x005D;, mannose receptor &#x005B;MR&#x005D;), 청소 수용체(scavenger receptors; MARCO, SR-A, CD36) 등이 있으며 세포질 센서의 예로는 NOD 유사 수용체와 이를 바탕으로 구성된 중합체인 인플라마좀(inflammasomes) 등이 해당된다. 이러한 PRRs와 이전에 서술한 NTM의 PAMPs 사이의 상호작용은 식균작용, 산화질소(nitric oxide, NO), 활성 산소종(reactive oxygen species, ROS)의 생성, P-L fusion, 자가포식 및 세포자멸사 유도를 포함하는 여러 식균작용을 초래한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b34-kjm-99-4-169">34</xref>&#x005D;.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>2) 대식세포의 NTM 포식작용(phagocytosis)</title>
<p>세포 외 PRRs는 포식세포와 항원제시세포(antigen-presenting cell, APC)가 PAMPs를 인식하는 첫 번째 수용체이다. 포식작용은 옵소닉(opsonic) 또는 비옵소닉(nonopsonic) 메커니즘으로 나뉘는데 이는 미생물이 보체 및 항체 단백질과 같은 용해성 PRR로 코팅되었는지 여부에 따라 달라진다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b35-kjm-99-4-169">35</xref>&#x005D;. 옵소닉 수용체에는 Fc 수용체, 인테그린 및 보체 수용체(complement receptor, CR)가 포함된다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b36-kjm-99-4-169">36</xref>&#x005D;. 비옵소닉 수용체는 앞에서 말한 TLRs, C형 렉틴 수용체, 청소 수용체 등이 있으나 NTM에서는 청소 수용체의 기능이 아직 뚜렷하지 않다. 이 중 TLRs의 경우 항산균의 섭취를 촉진할 뿐만 아니라 세포 내 신호 전달 캐스케이드를 시작하여 선천면역과 적응면역 사이의 연결고리 역할을 한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b37-kjm-99-4-169">37</xref>&#x005D;.</p>
<sec>
<title>(1) C형 렉틴 수용체</title>
<p>Dendritic cell-associated C-type lectin (dectin-1) 신호전달 및 dectin-1/TLR2는 <italic>M. abscessus</italic>에 감염된 대식세포에서 전염증성 사이토카인 분비를 유발한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b38-kjm-99-4-169">38</xref>&#x005D;. Dectin-1, MR, DC-SIGN 은 MTB를 사멸시키는 데 가장 중요한 C형 렉틴 수용체로 알려져 있다. Dectin-2는 항산균의 ManLAM을 인식하여 면역 반응에 영향을 미치는 세포 내 신호전달 캐스케이드를 유발한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b39-kjm-99-4-169">39</xref>&#x005D;. Dectin-2는 <italic>Mycobacterium intracellulare, Mycobacterium gordonae</italic>와 같은 지연 성장형 mannose-capped NTM은 인식하지만 mannose capping이 없는 <italic>M. abscessus</italic>와 <italic>M. smegmatis</italic>는 인식하지 못한다. Dectin-2 결핍은 <italic>M. avium</italic>에 감염된 쥐에서 병원성을 증가시켰다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b40-kjm-99-4-169">40</xref>&#x005D;.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>(2) TLRs</title>
<p>TLRs는 포식작용에서 다양한 항산균의 PAMPs를 인식하여 NTM의 섭취 및 신호전달을 증진시킨다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b36-kjm-99-4-169">36</xref>&#x005D;. 척추동물에서 알려져 있는 10개의 TLRs 중에 TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, TLR6, TLR9이 항산균 세포벽 당지질을 인식하는 것으로 알려져 있다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b35-kjm-99-4-169">35</xref>&#x005D;. TLR2, TLR4, TLR9과 이들의 하위 신호 어댑터 단백질인 MyD88은 MTB에 대한 선천면역 반응에서 가장 중요한 역할을 한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b41-kjm-99-4-169">41</xref>&#x005D;. TLR2는 다른 표면 수용체와 시너지 효과를 일으켜 리간드 인식을 촉진한다. MTB 감염에서 TLR2 매개 반응에는 수지상세포(dendritic cell, DC) 성숙 촉진, Th1, Th2, Th17 유형의 면역 반응 촉진, 대식세포 활성화 등이 있다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b42-kjm-99-4-169">42</xref>&#x005D;. NTM 감염에서는 <italic>M. abscessus</italic>와 <italic>M. avium</italic>에 의한 TLR2 활성화가 연구되어 있다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b43-kjm-99-4-169">43</xref>&#x005D;. 하지만 <italic>M. abscessus</italic> smooth colony phenotype의 표면 nsGPL은 기도상피세포에서 TLR2 신호를 막는 것으로 밝혀졌다. 앞서 서술한대로 <italic>M. abscessus</italic> 세포벽의 nsGPL은 선천면역 반응을 시작하는 TLR2 리간드인 PIMs를 덮는 외부층을 형성하여 TLR2에 의해 인식되는 것을 차단하고 숙주 면역 반응을 지연시킨다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b12-kjm-99-4-169">12</xref>&#x005D;. 하지만 <italic>M. avium</italic>에서 ssGPLs는 혈청형에 따라 Th1 면역 반응을 방해하는 역할에서부터 여러 가지 전염증성 매개체(prostaglandins, leukotriens, IL-1, IL-6, TNF-&#x003b1; 등)의 분비를 유도하는 역할까지 광범위한 면역 조절(modulation)을 보여준다. TLR4는 항산균의 세포벽 지질, 당단백질 및 분비 단백질을 인식하는 것으로 잘 알려져 있다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b37-kjm-99-4-169">37</xref>&#x005D;. <italic>M. avium</italic> subspecies paratuberculosis Map1305 단백질은 TLR4와의 직접적인 결합을 통해 DC 성숙, 전염증성 사이토카인(IL-6, TNF-&#x003b1;, IL-1&#x003b2;)의 생산을 유도한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b44-kjm-99-4-169">44</xref>&#x005D;. 또한 TLR4 신호전달은 <italic>M. abscessus</italic> MAB2560 단백질의 DC 성숙과 활성화 유도와 관련되어 있다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b45-kjm-99-4-169">45</xref>&#x005D;.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>3) 포식소체 성숙(phagosome maturation)</title>
<p>포식세포 표면의 PRRs가 NTM 표면의 PAMPs를 인식함으로써 염증 신호전달이 시작되고 포식세포의 세포막이 NTM을 둘러싼다. 이후 세포막은 다시 연결되어 포식된 NTM을 세포막에 둘러싸인 포식소체(phagosome)라 불리는 소낭(vesicle)에 가둔다. Phagosome은 용해소체(lysosome)와 만나 포식용해소체(phagolysosome)를 형성하며 그 안에 갇힌 미생물을 소화시키게 된다. Phagolysosome은 lipase, hydrolase, protease와 같은 다수의 효소를 가지는 산성 환경(pH &#x0003c; 5.0)으로 포식세포는 미생물 섭취 후 다양한 수용체를 통해 phagolysosome에 존재하는 효소들을 활성화하는 신호를 받는다. 이 효소들 중 포식세포 산화효소(phagocyte oxidase)는 산소를 superoxide 음이온과 자유 라디칼(free radicals)로 변화시키며 이러한 과정을 산화 파열(oxidative burst) 또는 호흡 파열(respiratory burst)이라고 한다. 여기서 파생된 자유 라디칼을 ROS라고 부르며 포식된 미생물에 독성이 매우 강하다. 또 다른 효소로 유도 산화질소 합성효소(inducible nitric oxide synthase, iNOS)가 있으며 이는 arginine을 NO로 전환시키고 이 역시 독성이 강하다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b34-kjm-99-4-169">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b35-kjm-99-4-169">35</xref>&#x005D;. 포식세포의 성숙에는 phagosome 산성화, ROS, NO, 항균 펩티드/단백질(antimicrobial peptides/protein, AMPs)의 형성이 필수적이다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b35-kjm-99-4-169">35</xref>&#x005D;. 하지만 항산균은 포식세포를 효율적으로 감염시키는 고도로 전문화된 세포 내 병원체이다. 항산균은 포식세포 내에서 생존하고 증식하기 위해 phagosome maturation을 억제할 수 있다. LAM, ManLAM, phenolic glycolipid phenolphthiocerol diester (PGL-1), isoprenoid edaxadiene, TDM 등과 같은 항산균 세포벽지질이 phagosome maturation을 조절하는 것으로 알려져 있다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b37-kjm-99-4-169">37</xref>&#x005D;. <italic>M. avium</italic>의 GPLs는 MR과 결합하여 P-L fusion을 억제할 수 있으며&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b46-kjm-99-4-169">46</xref>&#x005D; 이는 <italic>M. avium</italic>의 특정 혈청형에 따라 가능하다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b47-kjm-99-4-169">47</xref>&#x005D;. GPLs를 포함하는 <italic>M. abscessus</italic>의 smooth phenotype은 rough phenotype에 비해 더 낮은 수준의 phagosome 산성화, P-L fusion, autophagy를 유도한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b48-kjm-99-4-169">48</xref>&#x005D;.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>4) 세포자멸사(apoptosis)</title>
<p>대식세포는 세포 사멸 프로그램(cell death program)을 유도하여 추가적인 항산균의 세포 내 복제 및 살아있는 항산균의 전파를 막을 수 있다. 세포 사멸에는 크게 두 가지 방법이 있는데 세포자멸사(apoptosis)와 세포괴사(necrosis)이다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b49-kjm-99-4-169">49</xref>&#x005D;. 세포자멸사의 과정에는 DNA 절단(cleavage), 핵 응축(nuclear condensation)과 분절(fragmentation), 세포막 물집 형성(blebbing) 등의 특징이 나타난다. 세포자멸사가 진행된 대식세포 및 그미성숙 phagosome 안에 포함된 병원체는 주변의 다른 감염 되지 않은 대식세포(uninfected macrophage)에 의해 포식되어 제거(efferocytosis)되기 때문에 염증 반응이 일어나지 않는다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b50-kjm-99-4-169">50</xref>&#x005D;. 반면에 세포괴사는 염증 반응을 유발하며 살아있는 항산균을 전파시킬 수 있다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b49-kjm-99-4-169">49</xref>&#x005D;. 독성 MTB는 감염된 대식세포의 apoptosis를 억제하고 necrosis를 유발하여 선천면역을 회피한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b51-kjm-99-4-169">51</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b52-kjm-99-4-169">52</xref>&#x005D;. 하지만 NTM 감염에서 대식세포의 cell death 에 대한 연구는 많지 않다. <italic>M. avium</italic>이 apoptotic macrophage 를 이용하여 세포 간 확산 및 생존을 위한 도구로 사용한다는 증거가 보고되었다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b53-kjm-99-4-169">53</xref>&#x005D;.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>5) 면역 회피 기전(immune evasive strategies)</title>
<p>NTM이 대식세포 내에서 생존하기 위해 사용하는 면역 회피 기전은 잘 알려져 있지 않다. NTM의 면역 회피 기전으로는 P-L fusion 억제, 혐기성 세포 내 환경으로의 대사 전환, 복제를 향상시키는 NTM 관련 유전자 유도, 숙주 대식세포 기능의 직접적인 억제, ROS production blocking 등이 추정된다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b54-kjm-99-4-169">54</xref>&#x005D;.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>호중구</title>
<p>NTM에 대한 숙주 방어에서 호중구의 역할은 아직 정확히 알려져 있지 않다. <italic>M. avium</italic>을 복강 내에 감염시킨 susceptible mouse strain (BALB/c, Bcgs)에서 resistant mouse strain (BALC/c, Bcgr)과 비교하였을 때 호중구 침윤이 감소된 것으로 나타났으며 이는 호중구가 숙주 보호 역할을 한다는 것을 시사한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b55-kjm-99-4-169">55</xref>&#x005D;. 또 다른 연구에서도 RB6-8C5 anti-neutrophil antibody로 인해 호중구가 결핍된 마우스에서 <italic>M. avium</italic> 감염의 초기 단계에 세균 부하(bacterial burden)가 증가하였다고 보고하였다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b56-kjm-99-4-169">56</xref>&#x005D;. 또한 <italic>M. avium</italic>에 감염된 마우스에 과립구 집락 자극인자(granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, G-CSF)를 투여하였을 때 호중구의 활성화로 인해 <italic>M. avium</italic>에 대한 비특이적 숙주 방어를 유도하여 세균 부하를 감소시켰음이 확인되었다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b57-kjm-99-4-169">57</xref>&#x005D;. 하지만 이러한 결과의 정확한 기전은 아직 명확하지 않기 때문에 연구가 더 필요할 것으로 생각된다.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>적응면역(adaptive immunity)과 interferon-gamma (IFN-&#x003b3;)/IL-12 axis의 역할</title>
<p>NTM 감염에서 적응면역의 역할은 주로 T림프구와 관련되어 연구되었다. 숙주 방어에서 T림프구에 의해 작동되는 반응을 세포 매개 면역 반응(cell-mediated immunity)이라 한다. CD4&#x0002b; T림프구(보조 T림프구, helper T lymphocyte)는 포식한 미생물을 포함하는 포식세포를 동원하여 이들이 항산균을 소화하고 파괴할 수 있게 활성화시키는 사이토카인을 분비하는 역할을 하며 CD8&#x0002b; T림프구(세포 독성 T림프구, cytotoxic T lymphocyte &#x005B;CTL&#x005D;)는 세포질에 항산균 항원을 가지고 있는 감염된 세포를 직접 사멸시켜 세포 내 감염 저장소를 제거한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b34-kjm-99-4-169">34</xref>&#x005D;. <italic>M. avium</italic> 감염의 경우 CD4&#x0002b; T림프구 의존적으로 효과적인 조절이 가능하다. CD4&#x0002b; T림프구는 IFN-&#x003b3;를 분비하여 <italic>M. avium</italic> 감염을 조절한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b58-kjm-99-4-169">58</xref>&#x005D;. 일반적으로 APC가 발현하는 CD40과 활성화된 T림프구(Th1 cell)가 발현하는 CD40 리간드(CD40L 혹은 CD154)가 결합하여 APC를 활성화시켜 IL-12 발현을 유도하여 Th1 반응을 유발한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b59-kjm-99-4-169">59</xref>&#x005D;. 여기서 IFN-&#x003b3;/IL-12 축(IFN-&#x003b3;/IL-12 axis)이 매우 중요한 역할을 한다. 이렇게 생산된 IL-12는 CD4&#x0002b; T림프구 중 Th1 cell의 IL-12 수용체에 결합하여 IFN-&#x003b3; 생성과 Th1 세포 분화를 촉진시킨다. Th1 cell에 의해 생성된 IFN-&#x003b3;는 대식세포와 수지상세포를 활성화시켜 세포 내 항산균을 죽이고 IL-12와 TNF-&#x003b1;의 생산을 다시 촉진한다. 이와 같은 IFN-&#x003b3;와 IL-12에 의한 positive feedback 메커니즘을 IFN-&#x003b3;/IL-12 axis라고 부른다. IFN-&#x003b3;/IL-12 axis는 MTB 및 NTM과 같은 항산균에 대한 숙주의 면역 반응에 매우 중요한 역할을 한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b3-kjm-99-4-169">3</xref>&#x005D;. IL-12는 <italic>M. avium</italic>에 대한 숙주 방어에 관여하는 핵심 사이토카인으로 여겨지고 있으며 IL-12의 불활성화는 훨씬 더 심한 <italic>M. avium</italic> 감염을 초래한다. 또한 IFN-&#x003b3; 생성의 결핍 혹은 IFN-&#x003b3; 및 IL-12 수용체 발현의 결핍은 NTM, 특히 <italic>M. avium</italic> 감염의 발생과 관련이 높다고 알려져 있다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b60-kjm-99-4-169">60</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b61-kjm-99-4-169">61</xref>&#x005D;. 또한 IFN-&#x003b3;/IL-12 axis에서 생산되는 TNF-&#x003b1;는 항산균의 육아종 형성 및 유지에 중요한 역할을 차지한다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b62-kjm-99-4-169">62</xref>&#x005D;. Infliximab, adalimumab, certolizumab, etanercept와 같은 항종양괴사인자 제제(anti-TNF-&#x003b1; agents)의 사용은 NTM 폐질환의 위험인자이다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b63-kjm-99-4-169">63</xref>&#x005D;. 따라서 TNF-&#x003b1; 역시 NTM 폐질환에 대한 숙주 방어에 중요한 역할을 하는 것으로 생각된다.</p>
<p>하지만 MAC 폐질환에서는 낮은 IL-17 분비와 높은 IL-10 분비가 관찰된 반면 Th1 사이토카인 분비는 뚜렷하지 않았다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b64-kjm-99-4-169">64</xref>&#x005D;. 반면에 <italic>M. abscessus</italic> complex 폐질환 환자에서 혈청 내 사이토카인을 분석한 연구에서는 Th1 사이토카인(IFN-&#x003b3;, IL-12)과 Th2 사이토카인(IL-4, IL-13)은 감소되어 있었으나 Th17 사이토카인(IL-17, IL-23)은 증가되어 있었다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b65-kjm-99-4-169">65</xref>&#x005D;. 이와 같이 NTM의 종류에 따라 면역 기전이 다를 수 있을 것으로 생각된다. 또 다른 연구에서 NTM 폐질환 환자, 건강한 대조군, primary ciliary dyskinesia 환자, CF 환자를 대상으로 말초 혈액 단핵세포(peripheral blood mononuclear cells, PBMCs)를 분석한 결과 Th1/Th2/Treg 사이토카인 생산이 NTM 폐질환 환자와 대조군 간에 차이가 없어 NTM 폐질환 환자에서 IFN-&#x003b3;/IL-12 axis는 활성화되지 않는 것으로 보였지만 NTM 폐질환 환자에서 Th17 반응의 감소는 확인되었다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b66-kjm-99-4-169">66</xref>&#x005D;. 또한 많은 연구에서 NTM 폐질환 환자의 PBMCs에서 IFN-&#x003b3; 생산이 감소되어 있음을 확인했다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b67-kjm-99-4-169">67</xref>&#x005D;. 반면 MTB 환자의 PBMCs에서는 대조군 및 NTM 폐질환 환자보다 IFN-&#x003b3; 생산이 유의하게 높은 것으로 보고되었다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b68-kjm-99-4-169">68</xref>&#x005D;. 흥미롭게도 IFN-&#x003b3;/IL-12 axis는 MTB와 NTM 감염 모두에서 중요한 면역 반응임에도 불구하고 PBMCs에서 IFN-&#x003b3; 생산 반응은 MTB와 NTM에서 전혀 다른 것으로 보인다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b3-kjm-99-4-169">3</xref>&#x005D;. MAC 폐질환 환자에서 IFN-&#x003b3; 생산 감소의 원인이 MAC 지질이 T림프구를 억제하기 때문이라는 연구도 있지만 아직 명확하지 않아 추가 연구가 필요할 것으로 생각된다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b69-kjm-99-4-169">69</xref>&#x005D;.</p>
<p>CD4&#x0002b; T림프구와는 반대로 NTM 감염에서 CD8&#x0002b; T림프구의 역할은 뚜렷하지 않다. 몇몇 연구에서 <italic>M. avium</italic> 감염에서 CD8&#x0002b; T림프구가 증식하고 IFN-&#x003b3;를 분비하는 것이 관찰되었으나 knockout mice를 이용한 실험에서 CD8&#x0002b; T림프구 결핍은 질병의 결과에 영향을 미치지 않았다&#x005B;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b70-kjm-99-4-169">70</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b71-kjm-99-4-169">71</xref>&#x005D;. CD8&#x0002b; T림프구 및 &#x003b3;&#x003b4; T림프구와 같은 다른 림프구의 역할에 대해서는 아직 더 연구가 필요하다.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>결 론</title>
<p>NTM은 환경과 다양한 숙주에서 살아남는 데 잘 적응한 미생물이다. 위와 같이 NTM 폐질환의 발병 기전은 완전히 밝혀지지는 않았지만 NTM 자체 인자(NTM species, virulence, biofilm)와 숙주 인자(선천면역, 적응면역)가 중요한 역할을 한다. 이러한 각 구성 요소가 NTM 폐질환 환자마다 다르며 이러한 구성 요소들이 상호작용하여 발병할 것으로 생각된다. 그동안 NTM이 숙주의 기도점막을 침범하고 세포 내에서 복제하면서 숙주의 면역 반응을 회피하고 생존하는 메커니즘에 대한 상당한 정보가 축적되었으나 MTB 폐질환에 비해 NTM 폐질환의 병태생리에 대한 연구는 많이 부족하여 더 많은 추가 연구가 필요하다. NTM에 대한 면역 병태생리에 대한 지식이 증가함에 따라 향후 더 효과적인 예방 및 감염 치료 방법이 개발될 수 있을 것으로 기대된다.</p>
</sec></body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>CONFLICTS OF INTEREST</bold></p><p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure"><p><bold>FUNDING</bold></p><p>None.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="participating-researchers"><p><bold>AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS</bold></p>
<p>JWL reviewed literatures and wrote the manuscript.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<ack><p>None.</p></ack>
<ref-list xml:lang="en">
<title>REFERENCES</title>
<ref id="b1-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>1</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Lee</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Myung</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Koh</surname><given-names>WJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Moon</surname><given-names>SM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Jhun</surname><given-names>BW</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Epidemiology of nontuberculous mycobacterial infection, South Korea, 2007-2016</article-title>
<source>Emerg Infect Dis</source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>25</volume>
<fpage>569</fpage>
<lpage>572</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b2-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>2</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Kwon</surname><given-names>YS</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Koh</surname><given-names>WJ</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Diagnosis and treatment of nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease</article-title>
<source>J Korean Med Sci</source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>31</volume>
<fpage>649</fpage>
<lpage>659</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b3-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>3</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Matsuyama</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Matsumura</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Nonaka</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Pathophysiology of pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) disease</article-title>
<source>Respir Investig</source>
<year>2023</year>
<volume>61</volume>
<fpage>135</fpage>
<lpage>148</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b4-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>4</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Abe</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Fukushima</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Hosono</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Host immune response and novel diagnostic approach to NTM infections</article-title>
<source>Int J Mol Sci</source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>21</volume>
<fpage>4351</fpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b5-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>5</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Honda</surname><given-names>JR</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Virdi</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Chan</surname><given-names>ED</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Global environmental nontuberculous mycobacteria and their contemporaneous manmade and natural niches</article-title>
<source>Front Microbiol</source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>9</volume>
<fpage>2029</fpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b6-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>6</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Mu&#x000f1;oz-Egea</surname><given-names>MC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Akir</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Esteban</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Mycobacterium biofilms</article-title>
<source>Biofilm</source>
<year>2023</year>
<volume>5</volume>
<fpage>100107</fpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b7-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>7</label>
<element-citation publication-type="web">
<comment>DE Griffith. Pathogenesis of nontuberculous mycobacterial infections [Internet]. Waltham (MA): UpToDate, c2023 [cited 2024 Jul 10]. Available from: https://medilib.ir/uptodate/show/5345</comment>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b8-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>8</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Sousa</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bandeira</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Carvalho</surname><given-names>PA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Duarte</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Jordao</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Nontuberculous mycobacteria pathogenesis and biofilm assembly</article-title>
<source>Int J Mycobacteriol</source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>4</volume>
<fpage>36</fpage>
<lpage>43</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b9-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>9</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Zamora</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Esteban</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kinnari</surname><given-names>TJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Celdr&#x000e1;n</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Granizo</surname><given-names>JJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zafra</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>In-vitro evaluation of the adhesion to polypropylene sutures of non-pigmented, rapidly growing mycobacteria</article-title>
<source>Clin Microbiol Infect</source>
<year>2007</year>
<volume>13</volume>
<fpage>902</fpage>
<lpage>907</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b10-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>10</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Schorey</surname><given-names>JS</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Sweet</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>The mycobacterial glycopeptidolipids: structure, function, and their role in pathogenesis</article-title>
<source>Glycobiology</source>
<year>2008</year>
<volume>18</volume>
<fpage>832</fpage>
<lpage>841</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b11-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>11</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Hall-Stoodley</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Costerton</surname><given-names>JW</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Stoodley</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Bacterial biofilms: from the natural environment to infectious diseases</article-title>
<source>Nat Rev Microbiol</source>
<year>2004</year>
<volume>2</volume>
<fpage>95</fpage>
<lpage>108</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b12-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>12</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Rhoades</surname><given-names>ER</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Archambault</surname><given-names>AS</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Greendyke</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Hsu</surname><given-names>FF</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Streeter</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Byrd</surname><given-names>TF</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Mycobacterium abscessus glycopeptidolipids mask underlying cell wall phosphatidyl-myo-inositol mannosides blocking induction of human macrophage TNF-alpha by preventing interaction with TLR2</article-title>
<source>J Immunol</source>
<year>2009</year>
<volume>183</volume>
<fpage>1997</fpage>
<lpage>2007</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b13-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>13</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Rodr&#x000ed;guez-Sevilla</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Garc&#x000ed;a-Coca</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Romera-Garc&#x000ed;a</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Non-tuberculous Mycobacteria multispecies biofilms in cystic fibrosis: development of an in vitro Mycobacterium abscessus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa dual species biofilm model</article-title>
<source>Int J Med Microbiol</source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>308</volume>
<fpage>413</fpage>
<lpage>423</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b14-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>14</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Rodr&#x000ed;guez-Sevilla</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Crabb&#x000e9;</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Garc&#x000ed;a-Coca</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Aguilera-Correa</surname><given-names>JJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Esteban</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>P&#x000e9;rez-Jorge</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Antimicrobial treatment provides a competitive advantage to Mycobacterium abscessus in a dual-species biofilm with Pseudomonas aeruginosa</article-title>
<source>Antimicrob Agents Chemother</source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>63</volume>
<fpage>e01547</fpage>
<lpage>19</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b15-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>15</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Honda</surname><given-names>JR</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Knight</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Chan</surname><given-names>ED</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Pathogenesis and risk factors for nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease</article-title>
<source>Clin Chest Med</source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>36</volume>
<fpage>1</fpage>
<lpage>11</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b16-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>16</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Puzo</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>The carbohydrate- and lipid-containing cell wall of mycobacteria, phenolic glycolipids: structure and immunological properties</article-title>
<source>Crit Rev Microbiol</source>
<year>1990</year>
<volume>17</volume>
<fpage>305</fpage>
<lpage>327</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b17-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>17</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Tran</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bonham</surname><given-names>AJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Chan</surname><given-names>ED</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Honda</surname><given-names>JR</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>A paucity of knowledge regarding nontuberculous mycobacterial lipids compared to the tubercle bacillus</article-title>
<source>Tuberculosis (Edinb)</source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>115</volume>
<fpage>96</fpage>
<lpage>107</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b18-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>18</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Maeda</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Nigou</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Herrmann</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>The cell surface receptor DC-SIGN discriminates between Mycobacterium species through selective recognition of the mannose caps on lipoarabinomannan</article-title>
<source>J Biol Chem</source>
<year>2003</year>
<volume>278</volume>
<fpage>5513</fpage>
<lpage>5516</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b19-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>19</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Vignal</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gu&#x000e9;rardel</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kremer</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Lipomannans, but not lipoarabinomannans, purified from Mycobacterium chelonae and Mycobacterium kansasii induce TNF-alpha and IL-8 secretion by a CD14-toll-like receptor 2-dependent mechanism</article-title>
<source>J Immunol</source>
<year>2003</year>
<volume>171</volume>
<fpage>2014</fpage>
<lpage>2023</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b20-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>20</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Wieland</surname><given-names>CW</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Knapp</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Florquin</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Non-mannose-capped lipoarabinomannan induces lung inflammation via toll-like receptor 2</article-title>
<source>Am J Respir Crit Care Med</source>
<year>2004</year>
<volume>170</volume>
<fpage>1367</fpage>
<lpage>1374</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b21-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>21</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Freeman</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Geier</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Weigel</surname><given-names>KM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Do</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ford</surname><given-names>TE</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Cangelosi</surname><given-names>GA</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Roles for cell wall glycopeptidolipid in surface adherence and planktonic dispersal of Mycobacterium avium</article-title>
<source>Appl Environ Microbiol</source>
<year>2006</year>
<volume>72</volume>
<fpage>7554</fpage>
<lpage>7558</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b22-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>22</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Byrd</surname><given-names>TF</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lyons</surname><given-names>CR</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Preliminary characterization of a Mycobacterium abscessus mutant in human and murine models of infection</article-title>
<source>Infect Immun</source>
<year>1999</year>
<volume>67</volume>
<fpage>4700</fpage>
<lpage>4707</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b23-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>23</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Sanguinetti</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ardito</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Fiscarelli</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Fatal pulmonary infection due to multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium abscessus in a patient with cystic fibrosis</article-title>
<source>J Clin Microbiol</source>
<year>2001</year>
<volume>39</volume>
<fpage>816</fpage>
<lpage>819</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b24-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>24</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Torrelles</surname><given-names>JB</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ellis</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Osborne</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Characterization of virulence, colony morphotype and the glycopeptidolipid of Mycobacterium avium strain 104</article-title>
<source>Tuberculosis (Edinb)</source>
<year>2002</year>
<volume>82</volume>
<fpage>293</fpage>
<lpage>300</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b25-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>25</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Pedrosa</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Fl&#x000f3;rido</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kunze</surname><given-names>ZM</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Characterization of the virulence of Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) isolates in mice</article-title>
<source>Clin Exp Immunol</source>
<year>1994</year>
<volume>98</volume>
<fpage>210</fpage>
<lpage>216</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b26-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>26</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Schaefer</surname><given-names>WB</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Davis</surname><given-names>CL</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Cohn</surname><given-names>ML</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Pathogenicity of transparent, opaque, and rough variants of Mycobacterium avium in chickens and mice</article-title>
<source>Am Rev Respir Dis</source>
<year>1970</year>
<volume>102</volume>
<fpage>499</fpage>
<lpage>506</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b27-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>27</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Nishimura</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Shimoda</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tamizu</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>The rough colony morphotype of Mycobacterium avium exhibits high virulence in human macrophages and mice</article-title>
<source>J Med Microbiol</source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>69</volume>
<fpage>1020</fpage>
<lpage>1033</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b28-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>28</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Sweet</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Schorey</surname><given-names>JS</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Glycopeptidolipids from Mycobacterium avium promote macrophage activation in a TLR2- and MyD88-dependent manner</article-title>
<source>J Leukoc Biol</source>
<year>2006</year>
<volume>80</volume>
<fpage>415</fpage>
<lpage>423</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b29-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>29</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Takegaki</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Effect of serotype specific glycopeptidolipid (GPL) isolated from Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) on phagocytosis and phagosome-lysosome fusion of human peripheral blood monocytes</article-title>
<source>Kekkaku</source>
<year>2000</year>
<volume>75</volume>
<fpage>9</fpage>
<lpage>18</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b30-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>30</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Cebula</surname><given-names>BR</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rocco</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Maslow</surname><given-names>JN</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Irani</surname><given-names>VR</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Mycobacterium avium serovars 2 and 8 infections elicit unique activation of the host macrophage immune responses</article-title>
<source>Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis</source>
<year>2012</year>
<volume>31</volume>
<fpage>3407</fpage>
<lpage>3412</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b31-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>31</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>McGarvey</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bermudez</surname><given-names>LE</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Pathogenesis of nontuberculous mycobacteria infections</article-title>
<source>Clin Chest Med</source>
<year>2002</year>
<volume>23</volume>
<fpage>569</fpage>
<lpage>583</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b32-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>32</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Bermudez</surname><given-names>LE</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Goodman</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Mycobacterium tuberculosis invades and replicates within type II alveolar cells</article-title>
<source>Infect Immun</source>
<year>1996</year>
<volume>64</volume>
<fpage>1400</fpage>
<lpage>1406</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b33-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>33</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Lin</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zhang</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Barnes</surname><given-names>PF</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Chemokine production by a human alveolar epithelial cell line in response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis</article-title>
<source>Infect Immun</source>
<year>1998</year>
<volume>66</volume>
<fpage>1121</fpage>
<lpage>1126</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b34-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>34</label>
<element-citation publication-type="book">
<comment>Abbas AK, Lichtman AH, Pillai S. 김평형, 박석래, 유제욱, 윤지희, 이기종, 장용석 역. 핵심면역학. 6판. 서울: 법문에듀케이션, 2020</comment>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b35-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>35</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Awuh</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Flo</surname><given-names>TH</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Molecular basis of mycobacterial survival in macrophages</article-title>
<source>Cell Mol Life Sci</source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>74</volume>
<fpage>1625</fpage>
<lpage>1648</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b36-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>36</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Gordon</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Phagocytosis: an immunobiologic process</article-title>
<source>Immunity</source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>44</volume>
<fpage>463</fpage>
<lpage>475</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b37-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>37</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Shamaei</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Mirsaeidi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Nontuberculous Mycobacteria, macrophages, and host innate immune response</article-title>
<source>Infect Immun</source>
<year>2021</year>
<volume>89</volume>
<fpage>e0081220</fpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b38-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>38</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Shin</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Yang</surname><given-names>CS</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Yuk</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Mycobacterium abscessus activates the macrophage innate immune response via a physical and functional interaction between TLR2 and dectin-1</article-title>
<source>Cell Microbiol</source>
<year>2008</year>
<volume>10</volume>
<fpage>1608</fpage>
<lpage>1621</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b39-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>39</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Kerscher</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Willment</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Brown</surname><given-names>GD</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>The dectin-2 family of C-type lectin-like receptors: an update</article-title>
<source>Int Immunol</source>
<year>2013</year>
<volume>25</volume>
<fpage>271</fpage>
<lpage>277</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b40-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>40</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Yonekawa</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Saijo</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Hoshino</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Dectin-2 is a direct receptor for mannose-capped lipoarabinomannan of mycobacteria</article-title>
<source>Immunity</source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>41</volume>
<fpage>402</fpage>
<lpage>413</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b41-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>41</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Kleinnijenhuis</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Oosting</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Joosten</surname><given-names>LA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Netea</surname><given-names>MG</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Van Crevel</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Innate immune recognition of Mycobacterium tuberculosis</article-title>
<source>Clin Dev Immunol</source>
<year>2011</year>
<volume>2011</volume>
<fpage>405310</fpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b42-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>42</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Yu</surname><given-names>X</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zeng</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Xie</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Navigating through the maze of TLR2 mediated signaling network for better mycobacterium infection control</article-title>
<source>Biochimie</source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>102</volume>
<fpage>1</fpage>
<lpage>8</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b43-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>43</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Sampaio</surname><given-names>EP</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Elloumi</surname><given-names>HZ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zelazny</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Mycobacterium abscessus and <italic>M. avium</italic> trigger Toll-like receptor 2 and distinct cytokine response in human cells</article-title>
<source>Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol</source>
<year>2008</year>
<volume>39</volume>
<fpage>431</fpage>
<lpage>439</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b44-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>44</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Lee</surname><given-names>SJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Noh</surname><given-names>KT</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kang</surname><given-names>TH</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>The Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis protein MAP1305 modulates dendritic cell-mediated T cell proliferation through Toll-like receptor-4</article-title>
<source>BMB Rep</source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>47</volume>
<fpage>115</fpage>
<lpage>120</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b45-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>45</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Lee</surname><given-names>SJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Shin</surname><given-names>SJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lee</surname><given-names>SJ</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Mycobacterium abscessus MAB2560 induces maturation of dendritic cells via Toll-like receptor 4 and drives Th1 immune response</article-title>
<source>BMB Rep</source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>47</volume>
<fpage>512</fpage>
<lpage>517</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b46-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>46</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Shimada</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Takimoto</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Yano</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kumazawa</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Involvement of mannose receptor in glycopeptidolipid-mediated inhibition of phagosome-lysosome fusion</article-title>
<source>Microbiol Immunol</source>
<year>2006</year>
<volume>50</volume>
<fpage>243</fpage>
<lpage>251</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b47-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>47</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Kano</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Doi</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Fujita</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Takimoto</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Yano</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kumazawa</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Serotype-specific modulation of human monocyte functions by glycopeptidolipid (GPL) isolated from Mycobacterium avium complex</article-title>
<source>Biol Pharm Bull</source>
<year>2005</year>
<volume>28</volume>
<fpage>335</fpage>
<lpage>339</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b48-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>48</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Roux</surname><given-names>AL</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Viljoen</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bah</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>The distinct fate of smooth and rough Mycobacterium abscessus variants inside macrophages</article-title>
<source>Open Biol</source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>6</volume>
<fpage>160185</fpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b49-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>49</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Sia</surname><given-names>JK</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rengarajan</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Immunology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infections</article-title>
<source>Microbiol Spectr</source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>7</volume>
<fpage>10.1128/microbiolspec.gpp3-0022-2018</fpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b50-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>50</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Martin</surname><given-names>CJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Booty</surname><given-names>MG</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rosebrock</surname><given-names>TR</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Efferocytosis is an innate antibacterial mechanism</article-title>
<source>Cell Host Microbe</source>
<year>2012</year>
<volume>12</volume>
<fpage>289</fpage>
<lpage>300</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b51-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>51</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Chen</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gan</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Remold</surname><given-names>HG</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>A mechanism of virulence: virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis strain H37Rv, but not attenuated H37Ra, causes significant mitochondrial inner membrane disruption in macrophages leading to necrosis</article-title>
<source>J Immunol</source>
<year>2006</year>
<volume>176</volume>
<fpage>3707</fpage>
<lpage>3716</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b52-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>52</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Behar</surname><given-names>SM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Divangahi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Remold</surname><given-names>HG</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Evasion of innate immunity by Mycobacterium tuberculosis: is death an exit strategy?</article-title>
<source>Nat Rev Microbiol</source>
<year>2010</year>
<volume>8</volume>
<fpage>668</fpage>
<lpage>674</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b53-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>53</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Early</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Fischer</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bermudez</surname><given-names>LE</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Mycobacterium avium uses apoptotic macrophages as tools for spreading</article-title>
<source>Microb Pathog</source>
<year>2011</year>
<volume>50</volume>
<fpage>132</fpage>
<lpage>139</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b54-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>54</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Helguera-Repetto</surname><given-names>AC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Chacon-Salinas</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Cerna-Cortes</surname><given-names>JF</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Differential macrophage response to slow- and fast-growing pathogenic mycobacteria</article-title>
<source>Biomed Res Int</source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>2014</volume>
<fpage>916521</fpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b55-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>55</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Appelberg</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Pedrosa</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Silva</surname><given-names>MT</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Host and bacterial factors control the Mycobacterium avium-induced chronic peritoneal granulocytosis in mice</article-title>
<source>Clin Exp Immunol</source>
<year>1991</year>
<volume>83</volume>
<fpage>231</fpage>
<lpage>236</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b56-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>56</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Petrofsky</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bermudez</surname><given-names>LE</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Neutrophils from Mycobacterium avium-infected mice produce TNF-alpha, IL-12, and IL-1 beta and have a putative role in early host response</article-title>
<source>Clin Immunol</source>
<year>1999</year>
<volume>91</volume>
<fpage>354</fpage>
<lpage>358</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b57-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>57</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Bermudez</surname><given-names>LE</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Petrofsky</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Stevens</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Treatment with recombinant granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (filgrastin) stimulates neutrophils and tissue macrophages and induces an effective non-specific response against Mycobacterium avium in mice</article-title>
<source>Immunology</source>
<year>1998</year>
<volume>94</volume>
<fpage>297</fpage>
<lpage>303</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b58-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>58</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Appelberg</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Castro</surname><given-names>AG</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Pedrosa</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Silva</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Orme</surname><given-names>IM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Min&#x000f3;prio</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Role of gamma interferon and tumor necrosis factor alpha during T-cell-independent and -dependent phases of Mycobacterium avium infection</article-title>
<source>Infect Immun</source>
<year>1994</year>
<volume>62</volume>
<fpage>3962</fpage>
<lpage>3971</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b59-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>59</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Kato</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Hakamada</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Yamane</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Nariuchi</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Induction of IL-12 p40 messenger RNA expression and IL-12 production of macrophages via CD40-CD40 ligand interaction</article-title>
<source>J Immunol</source>
<year>1996</year>
<volume>156</volume>
<fpage>3932</fpage>
<lpage>3938</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b60-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>60</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Altare</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Durandy</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lammas</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Impairment of mycobacterial immunity in human interleukin-12 receptor deficiency</article-title>
<source>Science</source>
<year>1998</year>
<volume>280</volume>
<fpage>1432</fpage>
<lpage>1435</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b61-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>61</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Dorman</surname><given-names>SE</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Holland</surname><given-names>SM</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Mutation in the signal-transducing chain of the interferon-gamma receptor and susceptibility to mycobacterial infection</article-title>
<source>J Clin Invest</source>
<year>1998</year>
<volume>101</volume>
<fpage>2364</fpage>
<lpage>2369</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b62-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>62</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Fl&#x000f3;rido</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Appelberg</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Characterization of the deregulated immune activation occurring at late stages of mycobacterial infection in TNF-deficient mice</article-title>
<source>J Immunol</source>
<year>2007</year>
<volume>179</volume>
<fpage>7702</fpage>
<lpage>7708</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b63-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>63</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Winthrop</surname><given-names>KL</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Baxter</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Liu</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Mycobacterial diseases and antitumour necrosis factor therapy in USA</article-title>
<source>Ann Rheum Dis</source>
<year>2013</year>
<volume>72</volume>
<fpage>37</fpage>
<lpage>42</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b64-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>64</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Lim</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Allison</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Price</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Waterer</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Susceptibility to pulmonary disease due to Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex may reflect low IL-17 and high IL-10 responses rather than Th1 deficiency</article-title>
<source>Clin Immunol</source>
<year>2010</year>
<volume>137</volume>
<fpage>296</fpage>
<lpage>302</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b65-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>65</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Kim</surname><given-names>SY</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Koh</surname><given-names>WJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kim</surname><given-names>YH</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Importance of reciprocal balance of T cell immunity in Mycobacterium abscessus complex lung disease</article-title>
<source>PLoS One</source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>9</volume>
<fpage>e109941</fpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b66-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>66</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Wu</surname><given-names>UI</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Olivier</surname><given-names>KN</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kuhns</surname><given-names>DB</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Patients with idiopathic pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacterial disease have normal Th1/Th2 cytokine responses but diminished Th17 cytokine and enhanced granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor production</article-title>
<source>Open Forum Infect Dis</source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>6</volume>
<fpage>ofz484</fpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b67-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>67</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Ratnatunga</surname><given-names>CN</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lutzky</surname><given-names>VP</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kupz</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>The rise of non-tuberculosis mycobacterial lung disease</article-title>
<source>Front Immunol</source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>11</volume>
<fpage>303</fpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b68-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>68</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Greinert</surname><given-names>U</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Schlaak</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>R&#x000fc;sch-Gerdes</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Flad</surname><given-names>HD</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ernst</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Low in vitro production of interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in HIV-seronegative patients with pulmonary disease caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria</article-title>
<source>J Clin Immunol</source>
<year>2000</year>
<volume>20</volume>
<fpage>445</fpage>
<lpage>452</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b69-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>69</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Tsuyuguchi</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kawasumi</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Takashima</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tsuyuguchi</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kishimoto</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Mycobacterium avium-Mycobacterium intracellular complex-induced suppression of T-cell proliferation in vitro by regulation of monocyte accessory cell activity</article-title>
<source>Infect Immun</source>
<year>1990</year>
<volume>58</volume>
<fpage>1369</fpage>
<lpage>1378</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b70-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>70</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Bermudez</surname><given-names>LE</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Petrofsky</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Host defense against Mycobacterium avium does not have an absolute requirement for major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted T cells</article-title>
<source>Infect Immun</source>
<year>1999</year>
<volume>67</volume>
<fpage>3108</fpage>
<lpage>3111</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
<ref id="b71-kjm-99-4-169">
<label>71</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Gilbertson</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zhong</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Cheers</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Anergy, IFN-gamma production, and apoptosis in terminal infection of mice with Mycobacterium avium</article-title>
<source>J Immunol</source>
<year>1999</year>
<volume>163</volume>
<fpage>2073</fpage>
<lpage>2080</lpage>
</element-citation></ref>
</ref-list>
<sec sec-type="display-objects" xml:lang="en">
<title>Figures</title>
<fig id="f1-kjm-99-4-169" position="float">
<label>Figure 1.</label><caption><p>The cell wall of mycobacteria. Modified from Tran et al. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b17-kjm-99-4-169">17</xref>]. MTB, <italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</italic>; NTM, non-tuberculous mycobacteria.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="kjm-99-4-169f1.tif"/></fig>
<fig id="f2-kjm-99-4-169" position="float">
<label>Figure 2.</label><caption><p>Structures of the three families of LAM molecules. Modified from Tran et al. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b17-kjm-99-4-169">17</xref>]. AraLAM, uncapped lipoarabinomannan; PILAM, phosphoinositol-capped lipoarabinomannan; ManLAM, mannosylated capped lipoarabinomannan.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="kjm-99-4-169f2.tif"/></fig>
<fig id="f3-kjm-99-4-169" position="float">
<label>Figure 3.</label><caption><p>Glycopeptidolipid (GPL) composition influences the host cell interactions of <italic>Mycobacterium abscessus</italic>.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="kjm-99-4-169f3.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
</back></article>